Metric Structure

The villanesca is a strophic song, typically composed for a high-pitched vocal trio, where the leading voice is usually in the cantus. It can be viewed as an expanded strambotto, characterized by a recurring refrain after each pair of lines.

Two main metrical forms were prevalent in southern Italy during the period: the strambotto Toscano, a poem in hendecasyllabic couplets with the rhyme scheme AB AB AB CC, which thrived in Naples during the late 15th century, and the ottava siciliana, with the scheme AB AB AB AB. Both forms were adopted by composers of the villanesca.

The poems in Colonia’s collection demonstrate that they are essentially strambotti with a refrain after each couplet. For example, the first song of the collection, Madonna tu mi fai, shows these metrical traits:

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Madonna tu mi fai lo scorrucciato
Che t’haggio fatto che griffi la cera
 

Anima mia
Questa n’è via
De contentar’ st’affannato core.
 

Me par che m’habbi in tutto abbandonato
Che non t’affacci alhora della sera
 

Anima mia…
 

Va’, figlia mia, che ci aggio indivinato
Che saccio con chi giochi a covallera.
 

Anima mia…
 

Donque, caro mio ben, dolce Signora,
Habbi pietà d’un chi te sola adora.
 

Anima mia…
 

In this poem, you can observe the refrain after each couplet. The verses are in hendecasyllables, and the rhyme follows the AB AB AB CC pattern.

Starting from the strambotto, Neapolitan composers explored more flexible lyrical possibilities. They often deviated from standard patterns, reflecting the strong influence of oral tradition, which allowed for reinterpreting established metrical schemes. In printed collections, we frequently find a flexible system of repeating sections, likely inspired by the improvisational habits of performers, where the strophe is the foundation for both the musical and poetic structure.

Refrains vary in size and often have irregular line lengths, making the strophe flexible rather than rigid. In Colonia’s collection, refrains range from one to four lines, with the majority being three lines long. Metrical irregularities, such as assonance instead of rhyme, variations in rhyme order, and the number of couplets, are common. This suggests that the content took precedence over strict adherence to form.

The number of syllables in each line of villanesche typically ranges from five to thirteen, and the metric is influenced not only by word stress but also by phonetic factors, reminiscent of Greek and Latin metrics. Similar features can be found in the music of other cultures, such as Cappadocia, Albania, and Georgia. The variability in rhythm and meter makes it nearly impossible to transcribe the villanella using conventional bar lines, as the tempo and tactus would need to change constantly.

Musical Characteristics

Neapolitan composers of villanesca – including Da Nola, Lando, Cimello, Rodio, and De Antiquis – were highly skilled musicians, often serving as maestri di cappella and teachers in conservatories. These early collections were written by professionals, and while the genre later developed into four-part songs, this discussion will focus on the three-part arrangements.In a typical villanella, the tenor and bass parts often have unusually high ranges, with the bass above middle C and the tenor in the alto range. The tenor typically follows the cantus note-for-note in parallel thirds, though sometimes in sixths or fourths. The vocal range is narrow, generally spanning two octaves, and the overall range tends to follow the modal octave.The interval of a third is the most common in shaping the melody, while larger intervals like fourths or fifths are used sparingly. Parallel fifths, octaves, unisons, and seconds are frequent. Musicologist A. Einstein suggests that parallel fifths were used deliberately to parody contrapuntal mastery, as seen in G. T. di Maio’s No mano muzz’andò a furare pere. The use of parallel fifths, combined with homorhythmic procedures and syncopation, gives the music an ironic and irreverent tone. Contrary to the belief that the villanesca imitated rural songs, some researches argue that composers were drawing from traditional polyphonic techniques rooted in liturgical music. The use of three voices, though criticized by academics, was a deliberate expressive choice, mirroring practices found in Mediterranean work songs and even in the music of Flemish composers like Tinctoris.Overall, the counterpoint in villanesca is simple, often note-against-note, with frequent use of dotted rhythms or syncopation. The melody is free from strict harmonic rules, and cadences are typically approached by ascending or descending scales. The rhythmic and melodic patterns closely follow the accents in the text, creating a form of syllabic declamation with alternating long and short values. The result is a lively, spontaneous style, characterized by fast rhythms, sudden stops, and fresh starts.

Lyrics

The close relationship between poetic and musical lines suggests that many Neapolitan composers were also amateur poets or wrote their own lyrics. There is evidence to support the theory that Giovan Tomaso di Maio, a prominent maestro di cappella, was the author of the poems in Colonia’s collection.

The themes of these poems often revolve around unrequited love, which is treated with satire, irony, and sometimes erotic allusions. Common motifs include frustrated lovers, jealousy, and mockery of rural life. The texts are rich in colorful imagery and often reflect Mediterranean traditions, with frequent use of proverbs, truncated words, and fragmented phrases.

Interpreters and Instruments

The songs from early villanesca collections were written for a wide variety of voices, often beyond the standard vocal ranges. De Simone suggests that these pieces were performed by unconventional, unacademic voices, adding personality to the music while maintaining the unique Neapolitan style. The individuality of the singers was essential to making each performance unique.

Instruments played a significant role as well, with rural and urban practices differing greatly. Rural performances often featured instruments like the tammorra (frame drum with cymbals), calascione (long-necked lute), and chitarra battente (a type of strumming guitar). Urban performances, on the other hand, used more refined instruments such as the harpsichord, lute, and theorbo.